1JK00 - Samenvatting Organizational Behaviour - Chapter 1: What is organizational behavior? Good - Studeersnel (2024)

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Chapter 1: What is organizational behavior?

Good interpersonal skills / positive social relationships → workplace more pleasantManagers: an individual who achieves goals through other people, work in an organizationOrganization: a consciously coordinated social unit, composed of two or more people, thatfunctions on a relatively continuous basis to achieve a common goal or a set of goalsManagement functions - Planning: process that includes defining goals, establishing strategy and developing plans to coordinate activities - Organizing: determining what tasks are to be done, who is to do them, how the tasks are to be grouped, who reports to whom and where decisions are to be made - Leading: function that includes motivating employees, directing others, selecting the most effective communication channels and resolving conflicts - Controlling: monitoring activities to ensure that hey are being accomplished as planned and correcting any significant deviationsManagement rolesInterpersonal - Figurehead: symbolic head; required to perform a number of routine duties of a legal or social nature - Leader: responsible for the motivation and direction of employees (hiring, training, motivating and disciplining employees) - Liaison: maintains a network of outside contacts who provide favors and informationInformational - Monitor: receives a wide variety of information; serves as nerve center of internal and external information of the organization - Disseminator: transmits information received from outsiders or from other employees to members of the organization - Spokesperson: transmits information to outsiders on organization’s plans, policies, actions and results; serves as expert on organization’s industryDecisional - Entrepreneur: searches organization and its environment for opportunities and initiates projects to bring about change - Disturbance handler: responsible for corrective action when organization faces important, unexpected disturbances - Resource allocator: makes or approves significant organizational decisions (allocating human, physical and monetary resources) - Negotiator: responsible for representing the organization at major negotiations (discuss issues and bargain with other units to gain advantages for their own unit)Management skills

• Technical skills: ability to apply specialized knowledge or expertise
• Human skills: the ability to work with, understand and motivate other people, bothindividually and in groups
• Conceptual skills: the mental ability to analyze and diagnose complex situations

Managerial activities 1. Traditional management: decision making, planning and controlling 2. Communication: exchanging routine information and processing paperwork 3. Human resource management: motivating, disciplining, managing conflict, staffing and training 4. Networking: socializing, politicking and interacting with outsidersOrganizational behavior (OB): field study that investigates theimpact that individuals, groups and structure have on behaviorwithin organizations, for the purpose of applying such knowledge towards improving anorganization’s effectiveness - Core topics: motivation, leader behavior and power, interpersonal communication, group structure and processes, attitude development and perception, change processes, conflict and negotiation, work designSystematic study: looking at relationships, attempting to attribute causes and effects anddrawing conclusions based on scientific evidence (controlled conditions)Evidence-based management (EBM): basing managerial decisions based on the bestavailable scientific evidenceIntuition: a gut feeling not necessarily supported by research (systematic study & EBM addto this)Disciplines that contribute to the OB field - Psychology: science that seeks to measure, explain and sometimes change the behavior of humans and other animals - Social psychology: area of psychology that blends concepts from psychology and sociology and focuses on the influence of people on one another - Sociology: study of people in relation to their social environment or culture - Anthropology: study of societies to learn about human beings and their activitiesContingency variables: situational factors: variablesthat moderate the relationship between two or moreother variables → OB theories mirror subject they dealwith & people are complexChallenges and opportunities for OB - Responding to economic pressures → good times: understanding how to reward, satisfy, and retain employees, bad times: issues like stress, decision making and coping - Responding to globalization - Increased foreign assignment → different needs, aspirations and attitudes

• Efficiency degree to which an organization can achieve its ends at a low cost
• Organizational survival: degree to which an organization is able to exist andgrow over the long term → productivity, fits environment

Chapter 2: diversity in organizations

Surface level diversity: differences in easily perceived characteristics such as gender, race,ethnicity, age, or disability, that do not necessarily reflect the ways people think or feel butmay activate certain stereotypes - Biographical characteristics: personal characteristics - such as age, gender, race and length of tenure - that are objective and easily obtained from personnel records - Age → older: less likely to quit job, lower rates of avoidable absence & equal rates of unavoidable absence, age and productivity are unrelated, more likely to engage in citizenship behavior, higher satisfaction among professionals as they age & lower for non professionals, age does not influence trainability → combating age discrimination → higher levels of organizational performance - Gender → women perform slightly better, same problem-solving ability, analytical skills, competitive drive, motivation, sociability and learning ability → combating sex discrimination → higher levels of organizational performance - Race and ethnicity → favor own race → minorities disadvantaged, positive climate for diversity overall can lead to increased sales - Disability → lower performance expectations, but receive higher performance evaluations, mental disabilities impair performance more than physical (absence), superior personal qualities like dependability and potency - Tenure → positive relationship between seniority and job productivity, turnover and job satisfaction, negative relationship between seniority and absenteeism - Religion → victims of religious discrimination have higher levels of health problems, absence and turnover - Cultural identity → cultural norms influence the workplace → create as much of an individualized approach to practices and norms as possibleDeep-level diversity: differences in values, personality and work preferences that becomeprogressively more important fordetermining similarity as people get toknow one another better → similar willwork well together - Intellectual abilities: capacity to do mental activities - thinking, reasoning and problem solving → earn more money, attain higher levels of education, more likely to emerge as leaders, correlation cognitive ability and task performance, no correlation job satisfaction and intelligence

• General mental ability (GMA): overall factor of intelligence, as suggested by the positive correlations among specific intellectual ability dimensions
• Physical abilities: capacity to dotasks that demand stamina,dexterity, strength and similarcharacteristics → little relationshipamong them, high performancewhen employee has necessaryphysical abilities for a job
• Separation diversity: differences inpositions or opinions among groupmembers reflecting disagreement oropposition
• Variety diversity: meaningful differences in a certain type/category (expertise,knowledge, functional background)
• Disparity diversity: differences in the concentration of valuable socialassets/resourcesDiscrimination: noting a difference between things; often we refer to unfair discrimination,which means making judgements about individuals based on stereotypes regarding theirdemographic groupDiversity management: process andprogrammes by which managers make everyonemore aware of and sensitive to the needs anddifferences of others
• Attracting diverse employees → targetmessages to specific demographicgroups underrepresented in theworkforce
• Selecting diverse employees → valuefairness and objectivity, focus onproductive potential, well-defined protocol to prioritize qualifications overdemographic characteristics when hiring
• Collectivistic cultures: similarity to supervisors is more important for predictingadvancement, individualistic cultures: similarity to peers is more importantDiversity in groups
• Demographic diversity does not help or hurt team performance
• Teams of highly intelligent, conscientiousness and interested in working in teamsettings are more effective (diversity on these things is bad for performance)
• Groups with different types of expertise and education & mix of leaders and followersare more effective than hom*ogeneous groups
• Diverse groups will be more effective is leaders show how members have a commoninterest in the group's success and transformational leaders (emphasize higher-ordergoals and values) are more effective in managing diverse teamsEffective diversity programmes

Job involvement: degree to which a person identifies with a job, actively participates in it,and considers performance important to self-worth - Psychological empowerment: employee’s belief in the degree to which they affect their work environment, their competence, the meaningfulness of their job and their perceived autonomy in their work - High levels of job satisfaction and psychological empowerment are positively related to organizational citizenship, job performance and less absence and resignationOrganizational commitment: degree to which an employee identifies with a particularorganization and its goals and wishes to maintain membership in the organization 1. Affective commitment: emotional attachment to an organization and a belief in its values 2. Continuance commitment: perceived economic value of remaining with an organization compared to leaving it 3. Normative commitment: obligation to remain with an organization for moral or ethical reasons - Positive relation (affective) organizational commitment and job productivity, negative relation organizational commitment and absenteeism and turnover - Occupational commitment more relevant, better reflects today’s fluid workforcePerceived organizational support (POS): degree to which employees believe anorganization values their contribution and cares about their well-being - Strong POS perceptions → higher levels of organizational citizenship behaviors, lower levels of tardiness and better customer service - Relates to better job performance in those more likely to think of work as an exchange rather than a moral obligationEmployee engagement: an individual’s involvement and satisfaction with, and enthusiasmfor, the work he or she does - Supports organizational success, customer satisfaction, productivity, profits, lower levels of turnover and accidents, retain high-performing employeesThese job attitudes are highly related and overlapJob satisfactionMeasures: single question or identify key elements and ask employee’s feelings for eachCauses: work itself (challenging and stimulating), pay (low paid less satisfied, higher paidmore up to a point), advancement opportunities, supervision, co-workers (interdependence,feedback, social support, interaction outside workplace), education, job security, jobautonomy, work-life balance, employee participation, core self-evaluations (bottom-lineconclusions individuals have about their capabilities, competence and worth as a person,positive → higher job satisfaction)Relations: performance/productivity (both ways), more satisfied → more likely to engage inOCBs, satisfied employees increase customer satisfaction and loyalty (both ways),moderate/weak negative relationship job satisfaction and absenteeism, job dissatisfaction isrelated to turnover if there are alternatives/high ‘human capital’, job dissatisfaction predictsdeviant behavior in the workplace/employee withdrawalRegular surveys can reduce gaps between what managers think employees feel and whatthey really feelEmployee responses to dissatisfaction

• Exit: dissatisfaction expressed through behavior directed towards leaving the organization
• Voice: dissatisfaction expressed through active and constructive attempts to improve conditions
• Loyalty: dissatisfaction expressed by passively waiting for conditions to improve
• Neglect: dissatisfaction expressed through allowing conditions to worsen

Chapter 4: Personality and values

Personality: the sum total of ways in which an individual reacts and interacts with othersMeasures: self-report surveys (weakness: rate higher to impress, low accuracy),observer-ratings → combination of both predicts performance wellDeterminants: heredity (factors determined at conception, one’s biological, physiologicaland inherent psychological makeup) → biggest determinant of personality, environmentPersonality traits: enduring characteristics that describe an individual’s behaviorMyers-briggs Type Indicator (MBTI): personality test that taps four characteristics andclassifies people into 1 of 16 personality types - Extroverted (outgoing, sociable and assertive) vs introverted (quiet and shy) - Sensing (practical, prefer routine and order, focus on details) vs intuitive (rely on unconscious processes and look at the ‘big picture’) - Thinking (relies on reason and logic) vs feeling (relies on personal values and emotions) - Judging (want control, prefer order and structure) vs perceiving (flexible, spontaneous)→ low accuracy & reliability, no in-betweenBig Five model: personality assessment model that taps five basic dimensions → goodbehavior prediction - Extroversion: personality dimension that describes someone who is sociable, gregarious and assertive - Agreeableness: personality dimension that describes someone who is good-natured, cooperative and trusting - Conscientiousness: personality dimension that describes someone who is responsible, dependable, persistent and organized - Emotional stability: personality dimension that characterizes someone as calm, self-confident, secure (positive) versus nervous, depressed and insecure (negative) - Openness to experience: personality dimension that characterizes someone in terms of imagination, sensitivity and curiosity

Trait activation theory (TAT): theory thatpredicts that some situations, events orinterventions 'activate’ a trait more thanothersValues: basic convictions that a specificmode of conduct or end-state of existence ispersonally or socially preferable to anopposite or converse mode of conduct orend-state of existence - Judgemental element, content (mode of conduct or end-state of existence is important) and intensity (specifies how important) attributes - Influence attitudes and behavior - Vary among groups - Older workers: hardworking, conservative and conforming,late adults: achievement, ambition and dislike of authority, adults: work-life balance, relationship, dislike of rules, young-adults: financial success, confidence and loyalty to self and relationshipsValue system: hierarchy based on a ranking of an individual’s values in terms of theirintensity → tend to be relatively stableClassifying values - Terminal values: desirable end-states of existence; the goals a person would like to achieve during their lifetime (comfortable life, sense of accomplishment, etc.) - Instrumental values: preferable modes of behavior or means of achieving one’s terminal values (intellectual, ambitious, etc.)Personality-job fit theory: theorythat identifies six personality typesand proposes that the fit betweenpersonality type and occupationalenvironment determinessatisfaction and turnoverPerson-organization fit: peopleare attracted to and selected byorganizations that match their values, and they leave organizations thatare not compatible with their personalities → predicts job satisfaction,commitment to the organization and low turnoverHofstede’s framework for assessing cultures - Power distance: national culture attribute that describes the extent to which a society accepts that power in institutions and organizations is distributed unequally - Individualism: national culture attribute that describes the degree to which people prefer to act as individuals rather than as members of groups vs collectivism: national culture attribute that describes a tight social framework in which people expect others in groups of which they are a part to look after them and protect them

• Masculinity: national culture attribute that describes the extent to which the culture favors traditional masculine work roles of achievement, power and control. Societal values are characterized by assertiveness and materialism vs femininity: national culture attribute that has little differentiation between male and female roles, where women are treated as the equals of men in all aspects of the society
• Uncertainty avoidance: A national culture attribute that describes the extent to which a society feels threatened by uncertain and ambiguous situations and tries to avoid them
• Long-term orientation: A national culture attribute that emphasizes the future, thrift and persistence vs short-term orientation: A national culture attribute that emphasizes the past and present, respect for tradition and fulfillment of social obligations.GLOBE framework → resembles Hofstede dimensions, has added dimensions such ashumane orientation and performance orientation

Chapter 5: Perception, individual decision making

and creativity

Perception: a process by which individuals organize and interpret their sensory impressionsin order to give meaning to their environmentFactors: perceiver, target, situationAttribution theory: an attempt to determine whether anindividual’s behavior is internally or externally caused - Internally: under personal control of the individual - Externally: what we imagine the situation forced the individual to do - Distinctiveness: whether an individual displays different behaviors in different situations - Consensus: whether everyone who faces a similar situation responds in the same way - Consistency: whether a person responds the same way over timeFundamental attribution error: tendency tounderestimate the influence of external factors andoverestimate the influence of internal factors whenmaking judgements about the behavior of othersSelf-serving bias: tendency for individuals to attributetheir own successes to internal factors and put the blame for failures on external factorsShortcuts in judging others (perception errors) - Selective perception: tendency to selectively interpret what one sees on the basis of one’s interests, background, experience and attitudes - Halo effect: tendency to draw a general impression about an individual on the basis of a single characteristic

choices and to discount information that contradicts past judgements

• Availability bias: tendency for people to base their judgements on information that isreadily available to them
• Escalation of commitment: increased commitment to a previous decision in spite ofnegative information
• Randomness error: tendency of individuals to believe that they can predict theoutcome of random events
• Risk aversion: tendency to prefer a sure gain of a moderate amount over a riskieroutcome, even if the riskier outcome might have a higher expected payoff →risk-seeking behavior for negative outcomes and risk-averse behavior for positiveoutcomes
• Hindsight bias: tendency to believe falsely, after an outcome of an event is actuallyknown that one would have accurately predicted that outcomeInfluences on decision makingIndividual differences
• Personality → conscientiousness may affect escalation of commitment(achievement-striking people more likely to escalate commitment), high self-esteemuse self-serving bias to preserve it
• Gender → women ruminate (reflecting at length) more
• Mental ability → once warned about decision-making errors, more intelligent peoplelearn more quickly to avoid them & avoid logical errors (false syllogism, incorrectinterpretation of data)
• Cultural differences → time orientation, importance of rationality, belief in ability ofpeople to solve problems and preference for collective decision makingOrganizational constraints, shape decisions to organization’s...
• Performance evaluation
• Reward system
• Formal regulations
• System-imposed time constraints
• Historical precedentsEthical decision criteria

1. Utilitarianism: system in which decisions are made to provide the greatest good forthe greatest number

• Promotes efficiency and productivity

• Can ignore rights of some individuals

2. Focus on rights (privacy, free speech, etc.) → protects whistle-blowers (individualswho report unethical practices by their employer to outsiders)

• Protects individuals from injury, consistent with freedom and privacy

• Can create overly legalistic work environment that hinders productivity andefficiency

3. Focus on justice → impose and enforce rules fairly and impartially so that there is anequitable distribution of benefits and costs

• Protects interests of underrepresented and less powerful

• Can encourage a sense of entitlement that reduces risk taking, innovationand productivity→ shift from utilitarianism to focussing on rights and justice

Behavioral ethics: analyzing how people actually behave when confronted with ethicaldilemmas → while ethical standards exists collectively, individuals do not always follow themBroken windows theory: decayed and disorderly urban environments may facilitate criminalbehavior because they signal antisocial norms 1. Managers must realize that ethical behavior can be affected by signals 2. Managers should encourage conversations about moral issues 3. We should be aware of our own moral ‘blind spots’ (tendency to see ourselves as more moral than we are and others less moral than they are)! What is ethical in one culture may be unethical in anotherCreativity: ability to produce novel and usefulideasThree-stage model of creativity: proposition thatcreativity involves three stages: causes (creativepotential and creative environment), creativebehavior, and creative outcomes (innovation)Creative behavior 1. Problem formulation: identifying problem or opportunity that requires a solution that is as yet unknown 2. Information gathering: when possible solutions to a problem incubate in individual’s mind → thinking beyond usual routines and comfort zones 3. Idea generation: developing possible solutions to a problem from relevant information and knowledge → often collaborative 4. Idea evaluation: evaluation of potential solutions to problems to identify the best one → eliminate biases by having those who evaluate ideas to be different from those who generate themCauses of creative behavior - Creative potential → related to intelligence, openness to experience (Big Five), proactive personality, self-confidence, risk taking, tolerance for ambiguity and perseverance, expertise (foundation of creative work) - Creative environment → intrinsic motivation, rewards and recognizes creative work, structural empowerment (structure of work allows sufficient employee freedom), psychological empowerment (lets individual feel personally empowered), more individualistic cultures, diverse teams are more creative under certain conditions (when team members are asked to understand and consider point of view of other team members or when there is an inspirational leader or when they share knowledge of each other’s areas of expertise)Creative outcomes (innovation) → novelty and usefulness - Translating creative ideas into creative outcomes is a social process that requires utilizing for example power and politics, leadership and motivation

rewarding tends to decrease the overall level of motivation if the rewards are seen ascontrolling

• Self-concordance: degree to which people’s reasons for pursuing goals areconsistent with their interests and core values → higher: more likely to attain goalsand are happy even if they do not

• Job engagement: investment of employee’s physical, cognitive and emotionalenergies into job performance → positive work outcomes, higher if employeebelieves work is meaningful, match individual’s values and organization’s andleadership behaviors that inspire workers to a greater sense of missionGoal-setting theory: theory which says that specific and difficult goals, with feedback, leadto higher performance → other factors: goal commitment, task characteristics and nationalculture

• Promotion focus: self-regulation strategy that involves striving for goals throughadvancement and accomplishment → higher performance, citizenship behavior andinnovation

• Prevention focus: self-regulation strategy that involves striving for goals by fulfillingduties and obligations → safety performance

• Management by objectives (MBO):programme that encompasses specificgoals, participatively set, for an explicitlytime period, with feedback on goal progress

• Ingredients: goal specificity,participation in decision making,explicit time period andperformance feedback

• Disagreement MBO andgoal-setting theory: MBO advocates participation, goal-setting theorydemonstrates managers assigning goals is just as effectiveSelf-efficacy theory (social cognitivetheory/social-learning theory): an individual’s belief thathe or she is capable of performing a task

• Increase by: enactive mastery (gaining relevantexperience with the task or job), vicariousmodeling (becoming more confident becauseyou see someone else doing the task), verbalpersuasion (someone convinces you that youhave the skills necessary to be successful,Pygmalion effect or Galatea effect), arousal(only increases performance if arousal isrelevant)

• Strongly related to intelligence and personality (conscientiousness and emotionalstability)Reinforcement theory: theory that says that behavior is a function of its consequences →ignores inner state and solely concentrates on what happensto a person when he/she takes some actionEquity theory: theory which says that individuals comparetheir job inputs and outcomes with those of others and thenrespond to eliminate any inequities

• Perceive inequity → actions: change inputs, change outcomes, distort perceptions of self, distort perceptions of others, choose a different referent, leave the field

• Organizational justice: overall perception of what is fair in the workplace, composed of distributive, procedural, informational and interpersonal justice - Distributive justice: perceived fairness of the amount and allocation of rewards among individuals - Procedural justice: perceived fairness of the process used to determine the distribution of rewards - Informational justice: degree to which employees are provided truthful explanations for decisions - Interpersonal justice: degree to which employees are treated with dignity and respectExpectancy theory: theory which says that the strength of a tendency to act in a certainway depends on the strength of an expectation that the act will be followed by a givenoutcome and on the attractiveness of that outcome to the individual

1. Effort-performance relationship:probability perceived by the individual thatexerting a given amount of effort will leadto performance
2. Performance-reward relationship:degree to which the individualbelieves that performing at aparticular level will lead to theattainment of a desired outcome
3. Rewards-personal goals relationship:degree to which organizationalrewards satisfy an individual’spersonal goals or needs and theattractiveness of those potentialrewards for the individual

Chapter 7: Motivation:

from concepts to

applications

Job design: the way the elements in a job are organizedJob characteristics model (JCM): model that proposes that any job can be described interms of five core job dimensions: skill variety, task identity, task significance, autonomy andfeedback → relatively individualistic

• Not applicable to every job/workerJob sharing: arrangement that allows two or more individuals to split a traditional40-hour-a-week job

• Increases flexibility → increase motivation and satisfaction

• Finding compatible pairs who can coordinate the intricacies of one jobTeleworking: working from home at least two days a week on a computer that is linked tothe employer’s office
• Jobs: routine information-handling tasks, mobile activities and professional and otherknowledge-related tasks

• Larger labor pool, higher productivity, less turnover, improved moral and reducedoffice space costs + environmental savings

• Less direct supervision of employees, increase feelings of isolation, reduce jobsatisfaction, vulnerable to ‘out of sight, out of mind’ effectThe social and physical context of workSocial characteristics improving job performance: interdependence, social support,interactions with other people outside of work

• Social interactions → positive moods, opportunities to clarify work role and how wellthey are performing

• Social support → greater opportunities to obtain assistance with work

• Constructive social relationships → positive feedback loop: assist one another in a‘virtuous circle’Physical environment of work → more job satisfaction when physically comfortable

• Supportive environment: adequate tools, equipment, materials, supplies

• Favorable working conditions, helpful co-workers, supportive work rules andprocedures, sufficient information to make job-related decisions and adequate time todo a good jobEmployee involvement: participative process that uses the input of employees and isintended to increase employee commitment to an organization’s success

• Engage workers in decisions affecting them, increase autonomy & control over worklives → more motivated, committed, productive and satisfied

• More valued in countries with low power-distance

• Participative management: process in which subordinates share a significantdegree of decision-making power with their immediate superiors

• Representative participation: system in which workers participate in organizationaldecision making through a small group of representative employees (works councilsand board representatives)Using rewards to motivate employeesWhat to pay → balancing internal equity (worth of job to the organization, establishedthrough job evaluation) and external equity (external competitiveness of an organization’spay relative to pay elsewhere in its industry, established through pay surveys)

• Pay more → better-qualified, more highly motivated employees who will stay longer→ but operating costs → trade-offHow to pay

• Seniority-based pay

• Variable-pay programmes: pay plan that bases a portion of an employee’s pay on some individual and/or organizational measure of performance - Piece-rate pay plan: pay plan in which workers are paid a fixed sum for each unit of production completed → unrealistic for some jobs - Merit-based pay plan: pay plan based on performance appraisal ratings → as (in)valid as performance ratings, pay rise pool fluctuates that have little to with individual’s performance, unions resist merit pay plans - Bonuses: pay plan that rewards employees for recent performance rather than historical performance → employees’ pay is more vulnerable to cuts, splitting them into categories may increase motivation - Skill-based pay: a pay plan that sets pay levels on the basis of how many skills employees have or how many jobs they can do → learn all skills programme calls to learn, paying for skills for which there is no immediate need, don’t address level of skill - Profit-sharing plans: an organization-wide programme that distributes compensation based on some established formula designed around a company’s profitability → employees greater feeling of psychological ownership - Gainsharing: formula-based group incentive plan that uses improvements in group productivity from one period to another to determine the total amount of money allocated → improving performance - Employee stock ownership plans (ESOPs): a company-established benefits plan in which employees acquire stock, often at below-market prices, as part of their benefits- → increase satisfaction and innovation, reduce unethical behaviorFlexible benefits: benefits plan that allows each employee to put together a benefitspackage individually tailored to their own needs and situation

• Modular plans: predesigned packages or modules of benefits, each of which meetsthe needs of a specific group of employees

• Core-plus plans: consists of a core of essential benefits and a menu-like selection ofothers from which employees can select (benefit credits)

• Flexible spending plans: allow employees to set aside pretax pay up to the amountoffered in the plan to spend on particular benefitsIntrinsic rewards → employee recognition programmes: range form private ‘thank you’ towidely publicized formal programmes in which specific types of behavior are encouragedand procedures for attaining recognition are clearly identified

• Inexpensive, more motivating in long run, commitment to work goals, productivity andsatisfaction

• Susceptible to political manipulation by management

Chapter 8: emotions and moods

Affect: broad range of feelings that people experience - Emotions: intense feelings that are directed at someone or something